The cognitive apprenticeship approach has been applied in a good deal of conceptual, quantitative and qualitative studies in various settings including technology integration. It has proved successful in promoting students higher order thinking skills as well as in shaping the social interactions between teachers and students to goal-oriented problem solving. This model can also be used to teach disabled children through distance learning. It is felt that cognitive apprenticeship approach based on technologically rich learning environment provides a prescriptive method for analyzing and sequencing content and developing suitable strategies for learning, a tool for incorporating communities of practice in multimedia solutions, and a framework for building and reinforcing cognitive understanding among children with learning disabilities. Thus, in this paper an attempt has been made to explain in a deliberately speculative way, why activity and situations are integral to cognition and learning. Perhaps, by ignoring the situated nature of cognition, education defeats its own goal of providing usable, robust knowledge. Hence, it is argued that approaches such as cognitive apprenticeship that embed learning in activity and make deliberate use of the social and physical context will enable students with learning difficulties to acquire, develop, and use cognitive tools in a more authentic practices. Thus, it is important not only to solve problems in a learning environment that uses real-world contexts, but also to allow learners to witness the practitioners of that culture in solving problems and carrying out tasks.
Cognitive Apprenticeship is a method of teaching aimed primarily at teaching the processes that experts use to handle complex tasks. The focus of this learning through guided-experience is on cognitive and meta-cognitive skills, rather than on the physical skills and processes of traditional apprenticeships. Applying apprenticeship methods to largely cognitive skills requires the externalization of processes that are usually carried out internally. Observing the processes by which an expert thinks and practices these skills can teach students to learn on their own more skillfully. The application of computer-based technologies in cognitive apprenticeship can be more effective pedagogical tools that enhance the power and flexibility of the resources and that can be used to support the various components of cognitive apprenticeship that has been discussed. The focus of the article is mainly on application of computer- based technology in empowering children with disabilities.
Cognitive apprenticeship is an instructional design which is based on current understanding of how individuals learn (Bransford, Brown & Cooking, 2000). The term was first articulated by Collins, Brown and Newman (1989). The authors wrote :
We propose an alternative model of instruction that is accessible within the framework of the typical American classroom. It is a model of instruction that goes back to apprenticeship but incorporates elements of schooling. We call this model “Cognitive apprenticeship” (Collins, etal., 1989, p. 453).
The goal of cognitive apprenticeship is to address the problem of inert knowledge and to make the thinking processes of a learning activity visible to both the students and the teacher. The teacher is then able to employ the methods of traditional apprenticeship (modeling, coaching, scaffolding, and fading] to effectively guide student learning (Collins et al., 1991). Cognitive apprenticeship supports the effective integration of academic and vocational education, so students construct their own understanding of academic standards and internalize the thinking processes used to do so. This approach also includes a cognitive component which focuses on teaching the cognitive and meta-cognitive skills associated with a specific domain of knowledge. The cognitive and meta-cognitive components of learning deal with the processes and strategies used to solve problem and are used in situations which require learners to extend their knowledge to novel or complex situations outside the classroom. By doing so, students will learn to think like technicians, scientists and mathematicians.
The belief is that usable knowledge is best gained in learning environments featuring the following characteristics :
Educators since 1990s, have proposed a number of conceptual frameworks to guide the design and use of learning environments. One of these frameworks was the cognitive apprenticeship model proposed by Collins and colleagues (1989 : 1991) . It represents a fusion of the cognition theories of socio—cultural, zone of proximal development, and elements of traditional apprenticeship and situativity theory. To summarize :
Collins and colleagues (1989 ; 1991) argued that effective cognitive apprenticeship learning environments could be characterized through i 8 features belonging to four broad dimensions, namely content, methods, sequencing, and sociology of teaching. The remainder of this paper will describe how instructional methods of cognitive apprenticeship environments will help in teaching and training disabled children through the use of technology.
The cognitive apprenticeship approach, as formulated by Collins et al., (1989 : 1991), consists of six teaching methods such as Modeling, Coaching, Scaffolding, Articulation, Reflection, and Exploration. The six methods, in turn, break down into three groups. The first group Modeling, Coaching, and Scaffolding represents the core and is designed to help students to acquire an integrated set of cognitive skills through observation and supported practice. The second group Articulation and Reflection is designed to focus students‘ observations of expert problem solving and to gain control of their own problem solving strategies and meta-cognitive skills. The final group Exploration is intended to encourage learner autonomy, problem formulation by the self, and transfer.
In Modeling, an expert performs a task so that students can observe his actions and build a conceptual model of the processes required for task accomplishment. The provision of a conceptual model for disabled children contributed significantly to successes in teaching complex skills without resorting to lengthy practice of isolated sub—skills.
In Coaching, the teacher provides needed assistance to disabled children by providing individual attention on difficulties the learners are having, providing help at “critical times" or when the learners most needed it, providing requested assistance as needed and withdrawing unneeded help, and asking relevant questions to stimulate thought and provide a different point—of—view of situations.
ln Scaffolding, students participate in the practice of an expert, but only to the extent that they can handle and with the amount of responsibility that they are capable of assuming. Scaffolding is coupled with fading, the gradual removal of the teacher's support as students learn to manage more of the task on their own. The interplay between observation, scaffolding, and increasingly independent practice aids students in developing the meta-cognitive skills.
In Articulation, learners are required to “explain and think about what they are doing" by making their knowledge explicit. The role of the teacher is to encourage disabled children to explicate their knowledge, reasoning, and problem solving strategies. Such activities help students to participate in generating knowledge and evaluating the outcomes of knowledge—building activities.
In Reflection, students with learning difficulties will reflect on work they have already performed and analyze or deconstruct it. Through this process, they can increase their “awareness of their own knowledge" (meta- cognition] and be able to compare what they know with what others know.
In Exploration, disabled children tryout different methods and strategies in exploring their work environment. Through exploration they can learn how to set achievable goals, form and test hypotheses, and make independent discoveries. Giving students an interesting assignment with only generally formulated goals gives disabled students the latitude to explore and thus extend their understanding of a subject. It gives confidence to the students with learning disabilities in their ability to learn on their own.
Emerging technologies are leading to the creation of many new opportunities to guide and enhance learning among disabled children. Computer-based technologies and on-line training models hold great promise both for increasing access to knowledge and as a means of promoting learning. Within the framework of cognitive apprenticeship, computer-based technologies can be powerful pedagogical tools that enhance and expand the power and flexibility of the resources that can be deployed to support the various component of cognitive apprenticeship discussed earlier. In turn, cognitive apprenticeship approach can serve as solid foundation for the instructional design of computer- based environments to deliver skills and knowledge for disabled children either through multimedia, hypermedia, web-based, CAI, or tele-conferencing.
In establishing effective cognitive apprenticeship environments, there are many ways that technology can be used to help the disabled children.
Through virtual reality and hyper media applications, the real world can be simulated or brought into the classroom. Recent prominent technologies such as Internet, e-mail, and e-learning bring students with disabilities close to real- world environments and apprenticeship training and thereby authenticate learning (Jonassen, Peck & Wilson, 1999)
This can be easily done through the use of videos, embedded expert-systems, demonstrations, simulations, Internet connections (Wenger, 1998).
Technology also serves the role of a coach by locating the points in the problem—solving process where disabled students are having difficulty. Scaffolding also allows slow learners to participate in complex cognitive performances, such as scientific visualization and model based learning (Casey, 1996 ; Jonassen, Peck& Wilson, 1999).
Collins (1991) contends that “computers can make the invisible visible . . . tacit knowledge explicit . . . . to the degree that we can develop good process models of expert performance, we can embed these in technology, where they can be observed over and over for different details" (p. 1 25).
Technology allows cognitive apprenticeship model to be broken down into processes and sub-processes. In technological environments, modeling, reflection and articulation can be laid out in two-or-more dimensional form (i.e., pictures, videos, or computer models) and, thus, disabled students have an added opportunity to reflect on their learning (Herrington & Oliver, 2000; Spiro etal.,1992)
Hypermedia and multimedia courseware is also inherentlyable to provide for many other key components of the cognitive apprenticeship model such as articulation, reflection, collaboration and multiple perspectives (Herrington & Oliver, 2000). Disabled Iearnersacquire hands-on and minds-on experience and, thus, a deeper understanding of subject matter (Jonassen, Peck&Wilson, 1999).
Collins et al., (1989) suggest that without the highly individualized elements of teacher modeling, coaching and scaffolding, apprenticeship is impossible. Appropriately designed computer based cognitive apprenticeship for disabled children can make a style of learning more effective and widely available.
Computers can afford students the opportunity to think at their own epistemological desires and learning styles. Turkle & Papert(1991 ) emphasize the role of computers in supporting epistemological pluralism. The computers with its graphics, sounds, its text and animation, can provide a port of entry for people whose chief ways of relating to the world are through movement, intuition, visual impression, the power of words and associations.
Educational technologies can help disabled children in overcoming sever limitations by creating learning contexts that are authentic and permit a greater number of opportunities for learners‘ epistemological styles, pace, flexibility, self-correction, and learning modification. With appropriate type of technology, disabled students can reflect and articulate their understanding and make their thinking visible.
A large number of researchers have used different types of technology to implement cognitive apprenticeship, and found very good results (e.g., Casey, 1996 ; Cash, Behrmann & Stadt, 1997 ; Chee, 1995 ; De Bruin, 1995 ; Duncan, 1996 ; Jarvela, 1995, 1996 Looi &Tan, 1998).
Examples of available technology-based cognitive apprenticeship environments include :
In India, the NCTE in collaboration with Intel Technology India Pvt. Ltd., has undertaken a capacity building measure of teacher educators. The course aims to impart knowledge and skills to the teacher educators in the area of Integration of ICT in Education. The curriculum contains computer operation, use of multi- utility software, knowledge of Internet and web surfing, creation of digital portfolios, etc. The trainees, after the completion of the course. would be able to make effective use of technology to make teaching and learning experiences richer.
Recent developments in Information—Communication Technology (ICT) have provided an effective means for overcoming the distance in time and space between the teachers and the students through distance learning. imparting teaching and learning for disabled children through distance mode of learning has numerous advantages such as improving the quality of education, enhancing the life long learning process, availability of quality information, ability of the web environment to stimulate the interest of the students, the promotion of engagement and communication between students and the tutor, the recognition of value of web-learning and e-learning, etc.
Aziz [2003] suggested a number of various technologies that can be applied to the six instructional methods of cognitive apprenticeship.
These suggested technology tools can be applied to the six instructional methods of cognitive apprenticeship for teaching of disabled children.
The concept “Situated Cognition” will explain why 'activity' and 'situations' are integral to cognition and learning. Thus, approaches such as cognitive apprenticeship that embed learning in activity and make deliberate use of the social and physical context has become increasingly prominent as a model of instruction for disabled children. It is felt that the notion of apprenticeship as a model for cognitive development of students with learning disabilities is very ideal as it focuses on the active role of leaner organizing development, the active support and use of experts in social interaction, arrangement of tasks and activities, and the ordered nature of the instructional contexts, technologies, and goals of cognitive activities. Shared learning, routine activities, supportive structuring of students efforts and transfer of responsibility for handling skills to students are central to the process of learning in apprenticeship.
Online cognitive apprenticeship practices are beneficial to the disabled students because they integrate educational experiences with its surrounding society and community : through authentic activity ensures greater levels of retention and transfer; motivate and engage disabled learners in higher order cognitive reasoning / thinking: enhance meta—cognition skills and facilitate learning through guided experience so that students can think like technicians, scientists and mathematicians.