Table 1. Motor and Battery Rating used in EV/HEV
This paper reviews various types of electric vehicles such as Plugged-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles [PHEVs], Hybrid Electric Vehicles [HEVs] and Electric Vehicles [EVs]. These vehicles are operated by the source of electrical energy having very high torque electric motors. The electrical vehicles consist of various components to generate power. The source of power for these types of electric vehicles to generate power for the operation are batteries, ultra-capacitor, and the fuel cells. Various types of batteries are presently being used as the power source in the electric vehicles. The fuel cells and the ultra-capacitor have various advantages as they are cost effective and better when compared with conventional fuel. This review is very much important for the future study and various ongoing research on this topic.
The Electric vehicles are the best option for an alternative vehicle. These vehicles can be operated either plugged or unplugged with electrical energy. That means to run the electric vehicle, the only required thing is the electrical supply along with essential control for the vehicle which gives efficient output (Joseph, Victoire, Joseph, & Josh,. 2017). To get maximum output, the authors have used the unplugged electric vehicle, having the combination of the batteries connected in parallel to provide power to the vehicle that can be charged anywhere either in the home or a parking area, which is very reliable (Li, Chen, Yuan, Guo, Ji, & Guo, 2017). Once the batteries get charged fully, then they can operate for a day completely, that is so much beneficial as compared with the conventional fuel. We can also use the photovoltaic cells for charging the batteries to save some electrical energy (Luo, Cheng, Dong, Lu, Chen, & Gao, 2018).
There are some basic needs for reducing emissions and improving the fuel economy that can operate the vehicle effectively (Xu, Sun, Li, & Shi, 2017). The main focus of the automotive companies is to develop an electric vehicle, which is plug-in compatible and can be operated as ecofriendly (Pieltain Fernandez, Gomez San Roman, Cossent, Mateo Domingo, & Frias, 2011; Sciarretta, Back, & Guzzella, 2004). It has only one drawback, that it is totally dependent on the electrical power supply, which may increase the load in the power grid (Tremblay, Dessaint, & Dekkiche, 2007).
Generally, there are large scope and growing interest on Electric Vehicle (EVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles in the automobile companies which are being focused by the Government and customers very much because, these vehicles full-fill all the desire and demand of people at very low cost without affecting the environment (Hoelscher, Skorcz, Gao, & Ehsani, 2006). So, the main focus of the researchers is to develop the advanced electric drive with full control (Williamson, Khaligh, Oh, & Emadi, 2005).
The electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles are totally independent of an energy source as they are only dependent on the energy storage system of the vehicle that can determine the fuel economy and all-electric range of the vehicles (Lu, Hess, & Edwards, 2007; Caumont, Le Moigne, Rombaut, Muneret, & Lenain, 2000). Batteries are the primary energy storage devices which are used to boost the vehicle and they can be charged at the time of low power demand and discharged at the demand time of high power (Cooper and Moseley, 2006; Fetcenko et al., 2007). The ultra capacitor is another option to boost the vehicle with higher power densities as compared with the batteries. The energy storage system composed of batteries, ultra-capacitor and a fuel cell are the suitable options for the advanced vehicles (Karden, Ploumen, Fricke, Miller, & Snyder, 2007; Venkatasetty, & Jeong, 2002).
Plug-in electric vehicle may cause environmental security risks as compared with the electric vehicle; but it has so much advantage over various conventional vehicles. In the present time and near the future, the number of plug-in vehicles are to developed on a large scale and growing significantly across the world (Khaligh et al., 2007). Table 1 shows the type of different motors and batteries with their rating that are used in various available EVs.
Table 1. Motor and Battery Rating used in EV/HEV
The energy device used in a vehicle should store a sufficient amount of energy (KWH) that can pull out adequate peak in the vehicle to produce better acceleration which is capable for proper driving. So, a sufficient amount of energy storage device should be connected with the electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles to complete the desired ranges before starting the journey. The range of electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles depends on its energy storage device which can be varied in a daily cycle. In case of battery as a storage device in the electric vehicle, the battery is equipped to the required range of the vehicle (Kim & Choi, 2005; Li, 2008). The weight and volume of the battery can be easily calculated by the energy consumption of the vehicle and the energy density of the battery discharged during the working cycle. The batteries in these type of appliances are deep discharged and recharged regularly using the grid electricity (Walters, Husted, & Rajashekara, 2001).
In case of the batteries the materials used in it to operate for a long period of time are made up of topped lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion, whereas, in the ultracapacitor, only carbon-carbon double layer material is used. Because, in the present time, it is the one, which is being allowed for commercial uses. The development of lithium-ion batteries has been successfully done and is being used in both electric and hybrid vehicles (Williamson, & Emadi, 2005; Alaoui & Salameh, 2005).
The ultra-capacitor comes in the application under the development from 1990. Mainly the development which has been done in the field of ultra-capacitor is double layer capacitor having microporous carbon in both of the probes (Kutluay, Cadirci, Ozkazanc, & Cadirci, 2005).
1.1 Lead-Acid Batteries
The lead-acid battery has a large application in a hybrid electric vehicle. It generally contains the combination of the lead oxide and dilute sulfuric acid and it is a low-cost power source as compared with other easily available sources. The lead-acid batteries are one of the oldest technology, which is being used till today since from past so many years. The drawback of the Lead-acid battery is that its energy density and power efficiency is low due to the heavy lead collector which is being used in it.
The NiMH battery bears more load as compared with the Lead-acid battery. That is the efficiency and the energy density of the Nickel-Metal Hydride battery is twice or more than that of the lead-acid battery. Generally, in this battery, the alkaline solution is being used as an electrolyte and is made up of nickel hydroxide. The negative electrode consists of the alloy of vanadium, nickel, titanium and other metal. This battery needs to be recycled because the component of that battery may harm the environment. The Ni MH battery is very efficient to work at the high voltage. It is durable up to a long period of time as compared with the Lead-acid battery.
The energy density of the lithium-ion battery is very high. Its positive electrode consists of an oxidized cobalt material and the negative electrode is being formed by the carbon materials. An organic solvent is being used in this battery in the form of the electrolyte. The lithium-ion battery is a portable electronic device in which excellent performance can be found and has a long battery life. The energy density of Lithium-ion batteries is twice the energy density of Nickel-Metal Hydride battery.
The Nickel Zinc battery is the cheap material that is, its making cost is low and have high power density and large energy density and it does not pollute the environment which means, it is an eco- friendly device. It can be operating under moderate temperature conditions. But the drawback of this battery is that it is a low durable battery as compared with the other batteries because of the dendrites.
The Nickel-cadmium batteries are one of the very costly batteries having long durability and long lifetime as compared with all other batteries. The metal which is used in this battery will cause the environment pollution and harms the environment if it will not have disposed of properly. So, this battery is getting recycled because the metal type used in it is very heavy. The fuel efficiency of the Nickel-Cadmium batteries is excellent.
As shown in Figure 1, the UC is the arrangement of the two parallel plants that are separated by an insulator and having positive and negative charge separately on each plate. The life cycle of the UC is very long in comparison with the battery because of the absence of the chemical reaction in its electrodes due to the presence of the low internal resistance the UC gives high efficiency and that is the reason the power density of the UC is higher as compared to the batteries (Coleman, Lee, Zhu, & Hurley, 2007; Chatzakis, Kalaitzakis, Voulgaris, & Manias, 2003). The ultra-capacitor is used to deliver immediate power for the acceleration of its fast charge and discharge rates. In the present scenario, the working performance of the ultracapacitor is better switched in the hybrid electric vehicles in which either engine or the fuel cell will be used as the primary energy converter. The ultra-capacitor is to be classified on the basis of its requirement for energy storage. But a drawback is that ultra-capacitor is the bad for the plugged-in hybrid electric vehicles to work as the primary energy converter (Lee & Cheng, 2005).
Figure 1. Individual UC Cells
Hybrid electric vehicles are the vehicles in which more than one energy sources are present. The sources of energies are batteries, flywheel, etc. and the power can be generated by an engine, a fuel cell, ultra-capacitor, and battery, etc. Depending on the vehicles mechanical strength, two or more power or energy sources are used, as shown in Figure 2. The hybrid electric vehicles are the type of the vehicles that can reduce the pollution as well as save the energy through combing the electric motor and internal combustion engine together in such a way that very efficient characteristics can be obtained. The hybrid electric vehicles are categorized on the basis of its operation that is a series of hybrid electric vehicles and parallel hybrid vehicle as shown in Figure 2 (Jiang, & Dougal, 2006; Ortúzar, Moreno, & Dixon, 2007).
Figure 2. Series and Parallel Hybrid System
The engine and the electric motor can be coupled together to run the vehicle in case of the parallel hybrid electric vehicles, as shown in Figure 3. In these vehicles, the interior at its highest operating point decrease the fuel combustion as compared with others. Whereas in the series hybrid electric vehicles the engine can start the generator, which gives power to the motor of the vehicle, this process can take very less fuel consumption for the operation of a vehicle that can make the vehicle efficient as shown in Figure 3 (Bajec, Pevec, Voncina, Miljavec, & Nastran, 2005; Valentine-Urbschat, & Bernhart, 2009).
Figure 3. Hybrid Electric Vehicles Electrical System
The plugged-in hybrid electric vehicles are designed to increase the efficiency of the hybrid electric vehicle. The PHEVs and electric vehicles are the present form of the electrically operated system that can replace the internal combustion engine completely from vehicle and make it to work on electric power supply because the electrical supply system of the electrically operated vehicles are capable to operate the vehicle and to complete all its requirements. The higher capacity battery make it better and most durable and stores large amount of energy. The battery, which is used in the vehicle should be recharged after reaching to a certain peak and simply plug in the higher power supply or charging through grid (European Communities, 2009; Ramos, Olmos, Latorre, & Pérez- Arriaga, 2008).
The plugged-in hybrid electric vehicle has been designed to make the large range driving of the hybrid electric vehicle. By adding the ultra-vehicle to an energy storage device, it is capable of battery life for electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle but in the present scenario, there are no commercial vehicles (Six et al., 2009; Clement-Nyns, Haesen, & Driesen, 2010; Lopes et al., 2009). The ultra-capacitor is used in energy storage device whereas the mish-mash of ultra-capacitor and battery of energy storage device will enhance the fuel efficiency to increase the long range driving and enhance the battery life of the vehicles and decrease the pollution-related problem such as reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions Generally, there are two types of charging points can be described for the charging of the batteries that place in the vehicles. The points are as follows- the first one is, the individual charging points that will be placed in the resident at the parking that draws the moderate power for the charging of the vehicles and the second one is the charging station that can be made for fast charging of the vehicle at a same place on the same time.
After a longperiod of research, an isolated converter is developed having a transformer to charge or discharge the battery of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (Lopes, Soares, & Almeida, 2009; Axsen, Burke, & Kurani, 2008; Brahma, Guezennec, & Rizzoni, 2000). A converter has two active fuel bridge linked through a transformer. When it delivers energy to the battery from AC to DC converter then bridge behaves like an insulator, and the diode of the switches helps to rectify the AC power to DC and the internal diode of another bridge will rectify the current back to DC, which is useable by bidirectional AC to DC converter that can increase the battery life of the plugged-in hybrid electric vehicles (Delprat, Guerra, Paganelli, Lauber, & Delhom, 2001; Paganelli et al., 2000; Back, Simons, Kirschaum, & Krebs, 2002; Clement-Nyns, Van Reusel, & Driesen, 2007).
As shown in Figure 4, the new generation shows interest in taking the advantages of the Fuel cell technology that comes in an application with the power generation. In this, direct energy conversion will take place without combustion and utilize the alternative fuel without a single moving part It can decrease the pollution caused by carbondioxide, as shown in Figure 4. Generally, the fuel cell which is to be designed for as an application in all type of electric vehicles have the same weight, mechanical structure, that will be similar to the current conventional vehicles its fuel economy is perfect that can be operated normally without any danger in comparison with the handling of its fuel (Duvall, Knipping, Alexander, Tonachel, & Clark, 2007; Haesen, Driesen, & Belmans, 2007; Linderoth, Shapiro, & Wright, 2006; Labadie, 2004; Tiwari, & Tiwari, 2018).
Figure 4. Fuel Cell Vehicle System
A fuel cell is generally connected through a supplementary supply that is by the battery or the ultra-capacitor, which generates the power to start the system. The power generated in most of the automobile that can be operated by the electrical load will be connected through an internal combustion engine, initially that starts the alternator placed in the vehicle after the case of the fuel cell the power is independent of engine operation that can reduce the use of the alternator and eliminates the effect of the heating in the motor without using the engine also the fuel all has been a power conditioner in the vehicle, which protects the cause of the overload condition and saves the system from the reverse current, which can flow in it (Chau, Chan, & Liu, 2008; Clement- Nyns, Haesen, & Driesen, 2009; Khaligh, & Li, 2010; Emadi, Lee, & Rajashekara, 2008).
If technology works to create the next generation of automobiles then the maximum technology that can be developed in the automobile industry to make our lives easier and different. There is a large number of competition in every field of vehicles. The major issues are to overcome the weight and make it efficient and the improve the performance of the vehicle, that includes safety, durability, reliability and cost.
Research shows that the types of electric vehicles operated by batteries, fuel cells, and ultra-capacitors get more energy and help boost in the economy of the country save nature. This research shows the advantages of the type of vehicle operated by the electrical supply. It is seen that in electrical vehicles the major fault occurs in the technology while building this vehicle. We have to improve the technical support related to the vehicle. The main work which is to be done in the field of an electric vehicle is to make it durable, and reliable.