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i-manager's Journal on Educational Psychology (JPSY)

Current Issue Vol. 17 Issue 3

Creative Teaching: A Conceptual Framework
Examining Measurement Invariance of Different SWLS Measurement Models According to Gender
Sources of Geography Class Enjoyment and Boredom among Bhutanese Secondary School Students
The Emergence of a Large Disadvantaged Group after the Earthquake Disaster in Turkey on February 6, 2023, and Investigation of Inclusive Education Policy
Academic Stress among Higher Secondary School Adolescents during the Covid-19 Pandemic Context
Development and Validation of Emotional Competence Scale (ECS) for Upper Primary School Students

Most Cited

Volume 3 Issue 2 August - October 2009

Article

Measurement theory in language testing: Past traditions and current trends

Mohammad Ali Salmani Nodoushan*

Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Tehran, Kish International Campus, Iran.

Dr. Mohammad Ali Salmani Nodoushan (2009). Measurement theory in language testing: Past traditions and current trends. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1023

Abstract

A good test is one that has at least three qualities: reliability, or the precision with which a test measures what it is supposed to measure; validity, i.e., if the test really measures what it is supposed to measure; and practicality, or if the test, no matter how sound theoretically, is practicable in reality. These are the sine qua non for any test including tests of language proficiency. Over the past fifty years, language testing has witnessed three major measurement trends: Classical Test Theory (CTT), Generalizability Theory (G-Theory), and Item Response Theory (IRT). This paper will provide a very brief but valuable overview of these trends. It will then move onto a brief consideration of the most recent notion of Differential Item Functioning (DIF). It will finally conclude that the material discussed here is applicable not only to language tests but also to tests in other fields of science.

References

[1]. Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C. & Wall, D. (1995). Language test construction and evaluation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[2]. Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: OUP.

[3]. Brennan, R. L. (1984). Estimating the dependability of scores. In R. A. Berk (Ed.), A guide to criterion-referenced test construction (pp. 292-334). Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

[4]. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 292-334.

[5]. Cronbach, L. J. (1984). Essentials of psychological testing (4^th ed.). New York: Harper and Row.

[6]. Cronbach, L. J., Geleser, G. C., Nanda, H., & Rajaratnam, N. (1972). The dependability of behavioral measurement: Theory of generalizability for scores and profiles. New York: John Wiley.

[7]. Ebel, R. L. (1951). Estimation of the reliability of ratings. Psychometrika, 16, 407-424.

[8]. Farhady, H. (1980). Justification, development, and validation of functional language tests. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles.

[9]. Fisher, R. A. (1925). Statistical methods for research workers. London: Oliver & Bond.

[10]. Kane, M. T. (1982). A sampling model for validity. Applied Psychological Measurement, 6, 125-160.

[11]. Kane, M. T., & Brennan, R. L. (1980). Agreement coefficients as indices of dependability for domainreferenced tests. Applied Psychological Measurement, 4, 219-240.

[12]. Lindquist, E. F. (1953). Design and analysis of experiments in psychology and education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

[13]. Lord, F. M. (1957). Do tests of the same length have the same standard error of measurement? Educational and Psychological Measurement, 22, 511-521.

[14]. Messick, S. (1988). Validity. In L. R. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (pp. 13-103). New York: American Council on Education/McMillan.

[15]. Rasch, G. (1980). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

[16]. Shavelson, R., & Webb, N. (1981). Generalizability theory: 1973-1980. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 34, 133-166.

[17]. Shavelson, R. J., Webb, N., & Rowley, G. L. (1989). Generalizability theory. American Psychologist, 44, 922- 932.

[18]. Spearman, (1910). Correlation calculated from faulty data. British Journal of Psychology, 3, 271-295.

[19]. University of Sothern Florida. Item Response Theory. Paper retrieved from: http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~mbrannic / files/pmet/irt.htm.

[20]. Zumbo, B. D. (1999). A handbook on the theory and methods of differential item functioning (DIF): Logistic regression modeling as a unitary framework for binary and likert-type (ordinal) scores. Ottawa, ON.: Directorate of Human Resources Research and Evaluation, Department of National Defense.

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Article

Enabling the differently - abled

Sonali Pal*

Assistant Professor, Pearl Academy of Fashion, New Delhi.

Sonali Pal (2009). Enabling The Differently - Abled. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 13-26. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1025

Abstract

It is perhaps unfortunate that enabling technologies do not come with an 'ability warning', as they generally require the user to already have acquired a certain level of IT skills, in a similar way that online courses require users to have a certain level of prior IT knowledge. Accessing a computer and making the most of e-learning materials requires support at both the curriculum and technological levels, and some students find it easier to work with computers than others. Dyslexic students are no different, and often have the added cognitive load of having to use enabling technologies to access these materials, examples being text to speech facilities, magnification, changes in desktop settings and various methods to help with the input of text. These added technologies can be liberating, but only if they have been chosen with the specific requirements of that particular student in mind, and the student has gained adequate skills to make the most of the technologies' attributes.

Disabled learners must not be disadvantaged in education and it is important to ensure that learners are not unfairly treated in assessment situations. Colleges have an obligation to anticipate the needs of learners and to make reasonable adjustments to ensure that disabled learners can demonstrate their skills and abilities equally with their non-disabled peers. This obligation extends to online, distance and blended learning. Disabled learners can encounter barriers when undertaking online learning and when using Information Learning Technology. The focus of this paper is how to make learning materials and electronic learning environments easy and made accessible. In many cases, assessments can be undertaken using technology to assist learners. However, the needs of disabled learners also should be considered when the assessment is technology based, for example, multiple choice quizzes in a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). This paper covers the four main areas of accessibility: presentation, content, structure and navigation.

Importance should be stressed on anticipating the needs of disabled learners in any given learning situation. This means that colleges and curriculum managers should not wait until a disabled learner has enrolled on the course before thinking about which adjustments may be necessary in the classroom or the delivery method. An anticipatory duty means that colleges should include consideration of the needs of disabled learners during the period of curriculum design, planning and review. It is important to remember that access to the curriculum cannot be provided solely by means of technology; what is needed is a pedagogical solution, where the learner is included through an equivalent accessible learning experience.

References

[1]. D. E. Gilroy, T. R. Miles, 1996 , “Dyslexia at College” Routledge , New York

[2]. Biggs, 2003, “Teaching for quality learning at university”, Open University Press

[3]. Robert . W. Proctor , Kim Phuong L Vu, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005 “Handbook of human factors in web design”.

[4]. Paul Ramsden, 1994, “Learning to teach in Higher Education”, Routledge, London and New York.

[5]. Cesare Cornoldi, Jane Oakhill, “Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Processes and Intervention”, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996

[6]. Jennifer Moon, 2002, “The Module and Programme Development handbook”, Kogan Page Limited, London

[7]. Paul Ramsden, 1994, “Learning to teach in Higher Education”', Routledge, London and New York

[8]. Joanna Bull and Volleen McKenna, 2001, “Blueprint for Computer-assisted Assessment”, CAA Centre.

[9]. Littlejohn A (ed), 2003, “Revising Online Resources: a Sustainable approach to e-learning”, Kogan Page Limited, London

[10]. Garrison D and Anderson T, 2003, “E-learning in the st 21 Century”, Routledge Falmer, London and New York

[11]. D. E. Gilroy, T. R. Miles “Dyslexia at College” Routledge , New York , 1996

[12]. Norman Jackson, 2005, “Assessing students'creativity: synthesis of higher education teacher views”, The Higher Education Academy, version 2005, pp. 1-8.

13]. Grainne Conole and Bill Warburton, 2005“A Review of computer assisted assessment”, University of Southampton, UK, Routledge, Vol.13, No.1, March2005, pp. 17-31.

[14]. Michael J. Albers, Beth Mazur , 2003 , “Content & Complexity:Information Design in Technical Communication” Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

[15]. Gregory J. Shepherd, Eric W. Rothenbuhler; 2001, “Communication and Community”, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

[16]. Julie A. Jacko, Andrew Sears; 2003 , “The Human- Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies, and Emerging Applications”, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

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Article

Will Dyscalculics Be Benefitted By Dint Of Visual Learning?

S. Praveen Kumar* , B. William Dharma Raja**

* Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli.

** Senior Lecturer, Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli.

S. Praveen Kumar and B. William Dharma Raja (2009). Will Dyscalculics Be Benefitted By Dint Of Visual Learning? i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 27-32. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1027

Abstract

Not all children are made the same. Learning disabilities like dyslexia, dysgraphia or dyscalculia are either not understood or ignored in schools. As a result, the schoolchildren suffer for no fault of theirs and they lag behind in their course of learning. They may find it difficult to achieve the basic skills of learning such as reading, writing, reasoning or doing arithmetic calculations.

Dyscalculia, a learning disorder in which a student faces severe difficulties in mathematical computations, includes all types of difficulties in learning mathematics ranging from inability in understanding numbers to inability in applying mathematical principles to solve problems. Since understanding and working with numbers require mental skills, children who have trouble in visualizing concepts struggle with computation. A number of learning styles can be incorporated for the dyscalculic children who face severe problems.

Visual learning is a learning style which involves learning through seeing things. It involves the use of charts, graphs, pictures, diagrams, videos, transparencies, flipcharts, hand-outs etc in the learning process. Activities in practical Mathematics help students immensely in visualization. Innovative use of technology may help dyscalculic learners to overcome their disability to a large extent. Technology can greatly aid the process of mathematical exploration and clever use of such technology can help engage such students with learning disorders. As mathematics learning requires visual patterns to fully grasp the number concepts or computations, it is very essential for the schools to adopt visual learning strategies to meet the needs of dyscalculic learners.

References

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[8]. Lugo, Alejandrio.A. “The effects of multimedia-based instructional technology on Algebra I problem-solving skills of ninth through grade students with learning disabilities”, 65, no.9 (2004): 3278-A.

[9]. Michaelson & Thomas, Mathew. “An Overview of Dyscalculia:Methods for Ascertaining and Accommodating Dyscalculic Children in the Classroom ”< http:eric.ed.gov/ERICWebportal /Home. portal? nfpb =true&ERICExtSearch_Descri >(Accessed on 20 Sep 2008).

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Research Paper

All-Day Kindergarten And Cognitive Outcomes Of Racial Minority Students In The US

Mido Chang* , Kusum Devgan, Kimberly Bright*, YoungJi Yoon Sung****

Assistant Professor of Educational Research and Evaluation, USA.

Professor in the Educational Research and Evaluation program, Virginia Tech.

Director of Institute of Equity and Assessment, Roanoke College.

****Instructor of Department of Educational Leadership, George Washington University.

Mido Chang, Kusum Singh, Kimberly Filer and Youngji Y. Sung (2009). All-Day Kindergarten And Cognitive Outcomes Of Racial Minority Students In The USA. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 33-43. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1029

Abstract

The study explored the longitudinal effects of all-day kindergarten program on the academic performance of students from diverse racial backgrounds and social class from kindergarten to the end of first grade. The study examined the used three measures of reading and math scores from a nationally representative database of the USA, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS). A series of longitudinal multilevel models with various specifications were estimated. The results indicated that all-day kindergarten students began with significantly higher reading scores compared with half-day kindergarten students but there was no significant difference in the growth pattern. Importantly, students from low SES families and Hispanic background displayed enhanced reading achievement in all-day kindergarten.

References

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[7]. DeCicca, P. (2007). Does full-day kindergarten matter? Evidence from the first two years of schooling. Economics of Education Review, 26, 67–82.

[8]. Denton, K., West, J., & Walston, J. (2003). Readingyoung children's achievement and classroom experiences: Findings from the condition of education, 2003. National Center for Education Statistics, Washington DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 480 265)

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Research Paper

A Comparative Study of The Job Satisfaction Of Teachers Of District Bahawalpur (Pakistan)

Aijaz Ahmed Gujjar* , Masood Ahmed, Bushra Naoreen Choudhry*

* Lecturer, Federal College of Education, Islamabad & Doctoral scholar at Department of Education, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur.

Teacher Govt. High School, Bahawalpur, Pakistan.

* Lecturer, G C University, Faisalabad & Doctoral scholar at Department of Education, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur.

Aijaz Ahmed Gujjar, Masood Ahmed and Bushra Naoreen (2009). A Comparative Study of the Job Satisfaction Of Teachers Of District Bahawalpur(Pakistan). i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 44-51. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1031

Abstract

The Main Purpose Of The Study Was To Study The Job Satisfaction Level Of The Teachers Of Bahawalpur, In Order To Achieve The Desire End, 340 Teachers Were Taken As Sample Out Of These Gender Wise Distribution Was Male (195) And Female (145). A 32 Items Questionnaire (Likert Scale) Was Constructed And Divided Into 9 Dimensions Namely (Nature Of Work, Administrative Support, Salary, Atmosphere, Promotion, Decision Making, And Relation With Colleagues, Job Security And Over All Job Satisfaction). Questionnaire Was Pilot Tested And The Reliability Of The Questionnaire Was Found 0.789 (Cronbach’s Alpha). After Getting The Data, The Data Was Tabulated By Using Statistical Package For Social Sciences (SPSS XII). Independent Sample T-Test And ANOVA Were Run In Order To Compare The Different Variables (Gender, Nature Of Job, Designation, Age And Experience). The Study Reveals That Female Teachers Are More Satisfied Than Their Male Counter Parts, Permanent Teachers Are More Satisfied Than Contractual Teachers On Different Dimensions Of The Job Satisfaction Scale As Well As On Over All Job Satisfaction , Designation Wise Secondary School Teachers (Ssts) Are More Positive Than Elementary School Teachers (Ests) On Atmosphere Of The Institutions. Age Wise The Group Having The Age Group Of 41-50 Years Is Significantly Positive Than The Age Group Of 20-30 Years On Relation With Colleagues. Experience Wise The Group Having Experience Of 16-20 Years Is More Positive Than Group Having Experience Of 1-5 Years On Relation With Colleagues. The Findings Of The Study Lead To Several Recommendations.

References

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Research Paper

Online Psychology: Trial And Error In Course Development

Marsha Harman J*

* Professor of Psychology, Sam Houston State University.

Marsha Harman J (2009). Online Psychology: Trial And Error In Course Development. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 52-59. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1032

Abstract

Online Courses Appear To Be The Future If Colleges And Universities Choose To Increase Enrollments With Students Who Need More Flexibility In Scheduling. The Challenge Has Been To Create A Course That Is Rigorous With The Limitations To Physical Presence Of The Instructor And The Parameters Inherent In Technological Delivery. This Article Relates The Planning And Execution Of Such A Graduate Psychology Course In The Area Of Lifespan Development. The Instructor Decided A Hybrid Course, One That Had Elements Of Both Online Delivery And Limited Campus Attendance, Would Be Appropriate For The Initial Transition From Physical Attendance On Campus To Online Delivery And Interpersonal Interaction. Important Teachable Moments For The Instructor Included Creating Community With 36 Online Students, Number And Breadth Of Assignments, And Evaluation. Logistics, Such As Having Students Submit Assignments Online, Correcting Coursework, And Returning Documents To Students With Constructive Comments, Were Some Of The Challenges To Both Instructor And Students. The Delivery Infrastructure Was Blackboard, And The Instructor Had Attended Training On The New Features To Streamline Online Teaching For Both Instructor And Students. The Successes, Challenges, And Summative Decisions For Future Courses Are Shared.

References

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Research Paper

Emotional Intelligence Of In-Service And Pre-Service Trainee Teachers: A Comparative Study

Gaurav Singh* , Girijesh Kumar**

* Sr. Lecturer, Rakshpal Bahadur Teachers Training Institute, Bareilly

** Head, Department of Education, Faculty of Education and Allied Sciences, M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly.

Gaurav Singh and Girijesh Kumar (2009). Emotional Intelligence Of In-Service And Pre-Service Trainee Teachers: A Comparative Study. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 60-64. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1034

Abstract

A Teacher Is More Near To Students Than Any Other During His School Days. Students Want To Share Each And Every Thing Related To Educational As Well As Personal Matters With Him. It Reflects That A Teacher Has Strong Emotional Bondage With Students.In The Light Of Above Discussion Researcher Decided To Carry Out A Research On Trainee Teachers To Analyze Their Emotional Intelligence In Relation To Their Mode Of Training I.E. Pre-Service Training Programme (B.Ed. Regular) And In-Service Training Programme (B.Ed. Distance Mode).Research Has Been Carried Out On 182 Trainee Teachers (Divided In To Two Age Groups I.E. Pre-Service Training Programme (B.Ed. Regular) And In-Service Training Programme (B.Ed. Distance Mode), Using Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) By Anukool Hyde, Sanjyot Pathe And Upinder Dhar (2002). Mean, Standard Deviation And T-Test Are Used To Analyze The Data.The Research Has Indicated That Emotional Intelligence Of Trainee Teachers Differs Significantly In Relation To Their Mode Of Training. It Also Has Been Observed That On The Aspects Like Self Awareness, Emotional Stability, Managing Relation, Integrity, Self- Development, Empathy And Value Orientation, Trainee Teachers Of In-Service Course (B.Ed. Distance) Are Much Better, Whereas On The Aspects Like Self-Motivation, Commitment And Altruistic Behavior, The Trainee Teachers Of Pre-Service Course (B.Ed. Regular) Are Significantly Better Than Trainee Teachers In Distance Programme.

References

[1]. Cohen, J. (Ed.) (2001). Caring Classrooms – Intelligent Schools: The Social Emotional Education of young children. New York: Teacher College Press.

[2]. Garrett, H. E. (1981). Statistics in Education and Psychology. Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.

[3]. Goleman, D.P (1995). Emotional Intelligence;Why It Can Matter More Than IQ for Character, Health and Lifelong Achievement. Bantam Books, New York.

[4]. Mangal, S.K. (2004). Advanced Educational Psychology (2nd Ed.) New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

[5]. Salovey, P. & Mayor, J.D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition & Personality. Vol. 9 p.p. 185-211.

[6]. Singh, D. (2001). Emotional Intelligence at Work: A Professional Guide, New Delhi: Saga Publication pp. 16- 20.

[7]. Singh, G. and Singh, A. (2006). Development of Emotional Intelligence: Role of a Teacher Educator, Journal of Educational Studies, Allahabad: AES, 4(1&2), p.p. 56-57.

[8]. Singh, G. and Kumar, G. (2009). Emotional Intelligence and Medium of Instruction: A Study of Secondary School Teachers, Experiments in Education, The S.I.T.U. Council of Educational Research, Chennai. 38(3), p.p. 43-46.

[9]. Singh, G. and Kumar, G. (2009). Emotional Intelligence among Convent and Saraswati Schools' Teachers, Psycho-lingua, Psycho-Linguistic Association of India, Agra. 39 (2), p.p. 139-141. Why It Can Matter More Than IQ for Character, Health and Lifelong Achievement. Bantam Books, New York.

i-manager's Journal on Educational Psychology (JPSY)

Current Issue Vol. 17 Issue 3

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Volume 3 Issue 2 August - October 2009

Measurement theory in language testing: Past traditions and current trends

Mohammad Ali Salmani Nodoushan*

Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Tehran, Kish International Campus, Iran.

Dr. Mohammad Ali Salmani Nodoushan (2009). Measurement theory in language testing: Past traditions and current trends. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1023

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Enabling the differently - abled

Sonali Pal*

Assistant Professor, Pearl Academy of Fashion, New Delhi.

Sonali Pal (2009). Enabling The Differently - Abled. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 13-26. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1025

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Will Dyscalculics Be Benefitted By Dint Of Visual Learning?

S. Praveen Kumar* , B. William Dharma Raja**

* Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli. ** Senior Lecturer, Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli.

S. Praveen Kumar and B. William Dharma Raja (2009). Will Dyscalculics Be Benefitted By Dint Of Visual Learning? i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 27-32. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1027

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All-Day Kindergarten And Cognitive Outcomes Of Racial Minority Students In The US

Mido Chang* , Kusum Devgan**, Kimberly Bright***, YoungJi Yoon Sung****

*Assistant Professor of Educational Research and Evaluation, USA. **Professor in the Educational Research and Evaluation program, Virginia Tech. ***Director of Institute of Equity and Assessment, Roanoke College. ****Instructor of Department of Educational Leadership, George Washington University.

Mido Chang, Kusum Singh, Kimberly Filer and Youngji Y. Sung (2009). All-Day Kindergarten And Cognitive Outcomes Of Racial Minority Students In The USA. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 33-43. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1029

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A Comparative Study of The Job Satisfaction Of Teachers Of District Bahawalpur (Pakistan)

Aijaz Ahmed Gujjar* , Masood Ahmed**, Bushra Naoreen Choudhry***

Aijaz Ahmed Gujjar, Masood Ahmed and Bushra Naoreen (2009). A Comparative Study of the Job Satisfaction Of Teachers Of District Bahawalpur(Pakistan). i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 44-51. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1031

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Online Psychology: Trial And Error In Course Development

Marsha Harman J*

* Professor of Psychology, Sam Houston State University.

Marsha Harman J (2009). Online Psychology: Trial And Error In Course Development. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 52-59. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1032

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Emotional Intelligence Of In-Service And Pre-Service Trainee Teachers: A Comparative Study

Gaurav Singh* , Girijesh Kumar**

* Sr. Lecturer, Rakshpal Bahadur Teachers Training Institute, Bareilly ** Head, Department of Education, Faculty of Education and Allied Sciences, M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly.

Gaurav Singh and Girijesh Kumar (2009). Emotional Intelligence Of In-Service And Pre-Service Trainee Teachers: A Comparative Study. i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(2), 60-64. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.2.1034

Abstract

References

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* Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli.

** Senior Lecturer, Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli.

Mido Chang* , Kusum Devgan, Kimberly Bright*, YoungJi Yoon Sung****

Assistant Professor of Educational Research and Evaluation, USA.

Professor in the Educational Research and Evaluation program, Virginia Tech.

Director of Institute of Equity and Assessment, Roanoke College.

****Instructor of Department of Educational Leadership, George Washington University.

Aijaz Ahmed Gujjar* , Masood Ahmed, Bushra Naoreen Choudhry*

* Sr. Lecturer, Rakshpal Bahadur Teachers Training Institute, Bareilly

** Head, Department of Education, Faculty of Education and Allied Sciences, M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly.